Satyagraha in Action
Satyagraha in South Africa
The ‘Black Act’–1906-1914
In August of 1906 Mohandas Gandhi picked up one of the local newspapers and read the draft of an ordinance proposed by Transvaal Government. (At the time of the Black Act Transvaal was a province that included Johannesburg and the capital, Pretoria.) The official name of the Ordinance was the Asiatic Law Amendment Ordinance [1], but became known as the ‘Black Act’. ‘I shuddered as I read the sections of the Ordinance one after another. I saw nothing in it except hatred of Indians. It seemed to me that if the Ordinance was passed and the Indians meekly accepted it that would spell absolute ruins for the Indians in South Africa’ [2].
In brief the ordinance stated: ‘Every Indian, man, woman or child of eight years or upwards, entitled to reside in the Transvaal, must register his or her name with the Registrar of Asiatics and take out a certificate of registration… The registrar was to note down the important marks of identification upon the applicant’s person, and take his finger and thumb impressions. Every Indian who failed [to do this forfeited] his right of residence in the Transvaal. Failure to apply would be held to be an offence in law for which the defaulter could be fined, sent to prison or even deported within the discretion of the court.’ [3] The Ordinance held that the certificate must be produced before any police officer at any time or place. Failure to do so would be considered an offence for which the ‘defaulter’ could be fined or sent to prison.
The day after reading the Ordinance Gandhi met with ‘leading Indians’ of the area. If the Ordinance was passed in the Transvaal, they agreed, the rest of South Africa would follow. It was seen not only as a humiliation for Indians but of the India itself [4].
Approximately three weeks later another meeting was held with approximately three thousand in attendance. They discussed not only defying the law but of taking a pledge—an oath—to do so [5].
Indians throughout the community held meetings on the Ordinance and took pledges of resistance. Meetings were also held with the local government who were informed of the pledges. The colonial secretary, General Jan Smuts, reconsidered whether the Ordinance should be made applicable to women, but remained ‘adamant’ that the remainder of the legislation would be moved forward [6].
The movement designed to fight these Acts eventually evolved into the movement and philosophy known as Satyagraha [7].
Gandhi and .and a few colleagues went to England to plead their case, and while initially the Ordinance appeared to be defeated, through legal shenanigans it took effect on July 1, 1907 and all Indians were required to register by the end of that month [8].
During the month leading up to the date required to obtain a permit, registration offices were opened up. Satyagrahi volunteers picketed the permit offices. They were to warn Indians of the consequences of registering, and how they should conduct themselves with the police [9].
Out of 13,000 Indians in the Transvaal only 500 initially registered [10].
By January 10th, 1908, the leaders of the movement were arrested, tried and sentenced. ‘None of us had to offer any defense. All were to plead guilty to the charge of disobeying the order to leave the Transvaal within the stated period, issued by the Magistrate on failure to satisfy him that they were lawful holders of certificates of registration’ [11].
After two weeks in the Johannesburg jail, Gandhi received a visit from the editor of a local daily newspaper. Albert Cartwright ‘brought with him terms of settlement drafted or approved of by General Smuts’ [12].
The gist of the letter was that if the majority of the Indians were to register voluntarily, the Act would be repealed.
Gandhi writes, ‘[t]he draft did not make quite clear the condition which required Government to repeal the Black Act, I therefore suggested a change calculated to place this beyond all doubt from my own standpoint.’ [13]. Gandhi signed a draft of the settlement [he does not say explicitly that it contained his amendment [14]. Gandhi was released, followed by his fellow prisoners the following day [15].
Gandhi argued that the reason for agreeing with the settlement was that the original stigma of a law requiring registration had been removed. And it was that stigma that was the original reason for the action. Ultimately the Indians overwhelmingly registered for the permits [16].
When the final legislature was written the Indians found that the ‘Black Act’ would remain ‘on the statute books’, however the voluntary registration and certificates issues would be validated. The net effect being that, while Indians already in the Transvaal did have the option of ‘voluntarily’ registering, newly arriving Indians had no such option [17].
The Indians sent General Smuts a letter stating: ‘We regret to state, that if the Asiatic Act is not repealed in terms of the settlement, and if the Asiatic Act is not repealed in terms of the settlement, and if Government, decision to that effect is not communicated to the Indians before a specific date, the certificates collected by the Indians would be burnt, and they would humbly but firmly take the consequences’ [18].
The government refused to repeal the ordinance and 2,000 certificates were burned [19].
As a result Indians were arrested and sent to jail. ‘At one time, of the thirteen thousand Indians in the Transvaal, twenty-five hundred were in jail, [20]. The struggle began to take a financial toll on the Satagrahis. They had been financed by a monthly allowance ‘according to their need’ [21]. This system was unsustainable since no one knew how long the struggle would last. ‘There was only one solution for this difficulty, namely, that all the families should be kept at one place and should become members of a sort of co-operative commonwealth..’ They required a place in the Transvaal near Johannesburg. A wealthy benefactor, Herman Kallenbach, stepped in and purchased a farm of 1100 acres and allowed the Satyagrahis to use it, free of charge [22]. The property was named The Tolstoy Farm, in honour of Leo Tolstoy, whose book, The Kingdom of God is Within You, was one of the most influential texts in Gandhi’s life [23].
There were Satyagrahis of different religions who lived on the farm including ‘Hindus, Musalmans, Parsis and Christians.’ Gandhi’s goal was for the Satyagrahis to be as self-reliant as possible. There were two wells, a spring and almost a thousand fruit trees on the property [24]. They built houses made of corrugated iron and timber. They made sandals based on the methods of Trappist monks [25]. The sandals were used by the farmers and were sold to raise revenue. That members of different faiths had different dietary habits was initially a cause for concern for Gandhi. This was alleviated when both Christians and Muslims agreed to a vegetarian diet [26].
The Marriage Act–1913
On March 14th of 1913 a judgement was handed down that in effect rendered all marriages in South Africa illegal ‘with the exception of such as were celebrated according to Christian rites, and registered by the registrar of Marriages’ [27].
At the stroke of a pen all marriages celebrated according to the Hindu, Musalman [Muslim] and Zoroastrian rites were made illegal. The many married Indian women in South Africa in terms of this judgment ceased to [be]… the wives of their husbands and were degraded to the rank of concubines, while their progeny were deprived of their right to inherit the parent’s property’ [28].
This judgement propelled women to the ‘front lines’ of the Satyagraha movement for the first time. They were openly willing to defy the laws with the full expectation of being arrested and sent to jail.
To this end women were to enter the Transvaal from the neighbouring province of Natal without a permit, which was a criminal offence. Gandhi’s wife, Kasturbai, led the group of four women and twelve men. They were not arrested however but deported back to Natal. They promptly entered the Transvaal again, and on September 23, 1913, were tried and sentenced to three months in jail ‘A few weeks’ after their imprisonment they were joined by another group of women from the Transvaal who were arrested for a similar crime. A sixteen year old girl was among this group. She fell ill while in prison [29].
Gandhi writes, ‘How can I forget her? Valliamma R. Munuswami Mudaliar was a young girl of Johannesburg only sixteen years of age. She was confined to bed when I saw her. As she was a tall girl, her emaciated body was a terrible thing to behold. ‘“Valliamma you do not repent of your having gone to jail?” I asked. “Repent? I am even now ready to go to jail again if I am arrested,” said Valliamma. “But what if it results in your death?” I pursued. “I do not mind it. Who would not love to die for one’s motherland?” Valliamma died within days of her release [30].
Indians in Natal were angered by the women’s’ arrest and many joined the Satyagraha movement.
Mine-workers of Newcastle–1913
Less than a month after Kasturbai and her group were incarcerated a new campaign was started in the Natal city of Newcastle on behalf of mine-workers. The mine-workers suffered poor living conditions that kept them dependent on the mine-owners. In addition they were forced to pay an annual £3 tax if they did not return to India after the period of indentured labour [31]. The labourers, emboldened by the women’s incarceration, went on strike, and when Gandhi arrived in Newcastle, they brought their complaints to him.
The strike spread throughout South Africa, and the authorities responded with force, killing several strikers and wounding others [32]. Thousands of people were arrested and thrown into jail. Faced with the ongoing unrest, as well as a railway strike by European workers, General Smuts initiated a commission to study the plight of the Indians.
Gandhi sent General Smuts a letter [33] detailing the conditions under which Satyagraha would be suspended.
The commission agreed to all of the Indians’ demands and issued a report detailing its recommendations.
The report of the commission was favourable to the Indians [34]. Most of the recommendations of the report resulted in the Indian Relief Bill which was passed into law.
Gandhi writes, ‘[o]ne part of [the Relief Bill] dealt with the question of Indian marriages and validated in South Africa the marriages which were held legal in India, except that if a man had more wives than one, only one of them would any time be recognized as his legal wife in South Africa. The second part abolished the annual [£3 tax required of every indentured labourer] who failed to return to India, and settled in the country as a free man on the completion of his indenture. The third part provided that the domicile certificates issued by the Government to Indians in Natal and bearing the thumb impression of the holder of the permit should be recognized as conclusive evidence of the of the right of the holder to enter the Union as soon as his identity was established’ [35].
On July 18th of 1914 Gandhi left South Africa for good.
Satyagraha in India
Viramgam–1915
Viramgam is a municipality in the western Indian state of Gujarat. (When Gandhi returned to South Africa it was a province of British India.) In 1915 Gandhi heard complaints of ‘Viramgam customs hardships’. He acquainted himself with the complaints and gave a speech where he ‘hinted’ that Satyagraha could be used to address these hardships. He then met with the British statesman, Frederic John Napier Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford, who would become the Viceroy of India the following year [36].
Within a few days of this meeting the customs were removed. He regards this episode as the first use of Satuagraha in India. ‘…I am strongly of opinion that the imminent possibility of Satyagraha was the chief factor in obtaining the desired redress’ [37].
Indian Emigration Act–1917
There was a system of indentured labour in India whereby Indians emigrated to foreign countries and worked as indentured labourers for five years or less [38].This system was referred to as ‘semi-slavery’ by some [39]. By 1916 there was a desire among Indian leaders to abolish the system. ‘India had tolerated this system through sheer negligence, and I believed the time had come where people could successfully agitate for this redress’ [40].
Gandhi met with other Indian leaders and discussed the period within which the Government was to be asked to abolish the system. A specific date, July 31st, 1917, was chosen. Gandhi travelled throughout India holding meetings and building support. Before the July 31st deadline, the Indian Government announced the system of indentured migration from India was stopped, [41].
Champaran Struggle–1917-18
The Champaran area of India is located in the northern Indian state of Bihar, near the Himalayan Mountains. In 1917 peasant farmers in the Champaran area were required to plant ‘three out of every twenty parts of his land with Indigo for his landlord [42]. Gandhi was approached by a peasant and a lawyer from the region with stories about the conditions under which the tenant farmers worked. Gandhi responded that he would have to speak to the peasant authorities and the government officials, in this case the British commissioner for the area [43]. Upon contacting he authorities Gandhi was ordered to leave the area, which he refused to do. ‘This was my first act of civil disobedience against the British,’ Gandhi writes. ‘My desire was to establish the principle that no Englishman had the right to tell me to leave any part of my country where I had gone for a peaceful pursuit…It became the method by which India could be made free’ [44]. The case against Gandhi was not only withdrawn but he was allowed to collect the information he required. In addition he could count on cooperation from officials.
The Lieutenant Governor of the Bihari government initiated an inquiry to examine the issue. Gandhi accepted a position on the committee conducting the inquiry. The committee unanimously found in favour of the peasants. They recommended that the planters [landowners] should refund a portion of the extractions made by them which the committee found to be unlawful, and that the system should be abolished by law [45].
While working with the peasants in Champaran Gandhi received letters about the effects of a famine on the farmers of the Kheda area, and of labour struggles in the city of Ahmedabad, located in Gujarat.
Mill-hands of Ahmedabad –1918
In the city of Ahmedabad, Gandhi writes, ‘[w]ages were low, the labourers had long been agitating for an increment, and I had a desire to guide them if I could’ [46].
He had ‘consultations’ with the cotton mill owners and tried to settle the dispute through arbitration. The attempts were unsuccessful and Gandhi advised a strike, with the following conditions:
- Never to resort to violence
- Never to molest strike-breakers
- Never to depend on ‘alms’
- To remain firm, no matter how long the strike lasted [47].
After two weeks there were signs that the strike was faltering. ‘The attendance at their daily meetings began to dwindle by degrees, and despondency and despair were writ large on the faces of those who did attend.’ Concerned that the action would fall apart Gandhi took the drastic step of embarking on a fast. He threatened’ not to touch any food’ unless the strikers continued the action until a settlement was reached or till they left the mills altogether. The fast not only affected the labourers but the mill-owners with whom Gandhi had previously had close relationship [48]. Within days an arbitrator was appointed. Gandhi had fasted for four days when the strike was called off.
Kheda Struggle — 1918
There was a near-famine in the Kheda region of Gujarat and crops were failing. ‘Cultivators’, as Gandhi called the farmers, were to be exempt from an annual revenue assessment if their crops yielded less than a certain amount. The cultivators claimed that the bar had not been met and they were therefore exempt from the tax. The Government disagreed and levied the assessment anyway. The cultivators therefore resorted to Satyagraha, i.e. withheld the taxes. In his letter sent on behalf of the cultivators, Gandhi informed the Government that no further taxes would be paid for the remainder of the year, and that the cultivators would ‘gladly suffer the consequences of our non-payment.’ However if the Government agreed to suspend collection of the taxes those cultivators whose crops were above the threshold would pay the entire annual amount [49].
Ultimately Gandhi received word from the Government: ‘if well-to-do Patidars paid up, the poorer ones would be granted suspension. Gandhi and the other Satyagrahis accepted the settlement.
However Gandhi was not satisfied with the settlement, for the Government determined who was poor. Consequently very few cultivators received the benefit of the settlement. Gandhi writes, ‘The end of a Satyagraha campaign can be described as worthy only when it leaves the Satyagrahis stronger and more spirited than they are in the beginning.’ Furthermore Gandhi seemed conflicted about the impact of the Satyagraha on the peasants, while they ‘had found the true and infallible method for a redress of their grievances’, they ‘had not fully understood the inner meaning of Satyagraha’ [50].
The Rowlatt Act–1919
The Defence of India Act, (1915), was legislation that gave the government of British India special powers to deal with revolutionary and German-inspired threats during World War I (1914–18), especially in the Punjab. A special legal tribunal was set up to deal with such cases without prior commitment and with no appeal. Power was also taken for the internment of suspects [51].
The Rowlatt Acts, (February 1919), was legislation passed by the Imperial Legislative Council, the legislature of British India. The acts allowed certain political cases to be tried without juries and permitted internment of suspects without trial. Their object was to replace the repressive provisions of the wartime Defence of India Act (1915) by a permanent law [52].
With other Indian leaders Gandhi suggested that on the day the Bill became an Act, i.e. the law of the land, all of India should engage in an act of ‘self-purification’ and a hartal--a suspension of business activity. ‘For a twenty-four hour period, all Indians should suspend business and engage in fasting and prayer.’ [53]. The action was set for March 30th but was rescheduled for April 6th. However the action went ahead on March 30th in Delhi. A crowd marched towards the railway station and the police opened fire. Several marchers were killed [54]. Gandhi was arrested and later released, but news of his arrest sparked further violence in Bombay and Ahmedabad, where martial law was declared.
Two peaceful hartals were held in the city of Amritsar in the Punjab province. Two Punjabi leaders were arrested. Their followers marched to the house of the Lieutenant Governor to demand their released. British troops fired on the marchers killing or wounding several. The crowd ‘rioted’ through the city, burning British banks, murdering several Britons and attacking two British women [55]. General Reginald Dyer was sent to restore order. He issued a proclamation on April 12th prohibiting processions and meetings. The following day the General heard of a meeting that was scheduled for 4:30 that afternoon. The meeting was to be held on an unused piece of land almost entirely surrounded by buildings. Dyer and his troops arrived at one of the entrances to the plot of land. According to a report published after the incident, the General’s troops, who were from Nepal and what is now Pakistan, opened, and sustained fire for ten minutes on the crowd. An estimated 1,650 rounds were fired, 379 unarmed civilians were killed and 1137 wounded [56].
By this time Gandhi had called off the Satyagraha.
Salt March – 1930
During the 1920s the desire for full independence from Britain grew. At the convention held by the Indian National Congress (also called the Congress Party) in Calcutta (Dec. 29, 1928-Jan. 1, 1929) [57], the younger leaders of the party, among them Jawaharlal Nehru, asked for complete independence from Britain within a year and for actions to attain it. The Party instructed its members to withdraw from all legislatures set up by the British Government and sanctioned a massive Civil Disobedience movement, with Gandhi as the leader [58].
On March 2nd, 1930 Gandhi wrote a letter to the British Viceroy (Lord Irwin, later Viscount Halifax). He outlined the taxation system that seemed designed to crush the ‘very life’ out of the poor [59].
He then informed him of the upcoming campaign of civil disobedience. He made clear however that the campaign was designed to right a wrong, and not to harm the British. He writes ‘My ambition is no less to convert the British people through non-violence, and thus make them see the wrong they have done to India [60].The form of the civil disobedience was to openly defy the Salt Laws.
(Salt production and distribution in India had long been a lucrative monopoly of the British. Through a series of laws, the Indian populace was prohibited from producing or selling salt independently, and instead Indians were required to buy expensive, heavily taxed salt that often was imported. This affected the great majority of Indians, who were poor and could not afford to buy it. Indian protests against the salt tax began in the 19th century and remained a major contentious issue throughout the period of British rule of the subcontinent [61].
On March 12, 1930, Gandhi and seventy-eight men and women set off from the Sabamrti ashram near the city of Ahmedabad. Two hundred miles and twenty-four days later the marchers reached the town of Dandi on the coast of the Arabian Sea [62]. Gandhi stepped into the waves. As the water receded he picked up salt that was left behind. In so doing he broke the British Salt Law prohibiting the possession of salt not obtained from the British government monopoly.
Gandhi continued the Satyagraha for the next two months. Soon all India followed suit, defying the laws by collecting salt. Many more Indians had joined the Satyagraha, including the young Congress Party leader Jawaharlal Nehru, who was arrested in April. Gandhi himself was arrested in May. News of Gandhi’s arrest spurred further acts of civil disobedience. On May 21st another march was held. Many of the 2500 marchers were beaten by police [63]. By the end of the year 60,000 people had been arrested and thrown into jail [64].
The Satyagraha movement had garnered worldwide attention. In January of 1931 Gandhi was released from prison. He and the viceroy of India (Lord Irwin) began negotiating an end to the Satyagraha. The two men ultimately reached an agreement on March 5th, 1931. Irwin agreed to release those who had been imprisoned during the Satyagraha and Indians were allowed to make salt for domestic use, and Gandhi agreed to end the Satyagraha [65].
Later that year Gandhi sailed to England to participate in the second session of the Round Table Conferences.
Indian Independence—1930-1947
By 1930 Indians had been agitating for independence from Britain for years. The Round Table Conferences were created to ‘consider the future constitution of India.’ [66].
Three sessions of the Round Table Conferences resulted in the Government of India Act of 1935 [67].
The Government of India Act of 1935 gave all provinces full representative and elective governments, chosen by franchise extended now to some 30 million Indians, and only the most crucial portfolios—defense, revenue, and foreign affairs—were “reserved” to appointed officials [68].
On September 3, 1939, the viceroy informed India’s political leaders and populace that they–the Indian people–were at war with Germany. The unilateral decision by the viceroy made both Gandhi and other leaders of the Congress Party (the Indian national Congress), including Jawaharlal Nehru, angry, for they considered the Congress Party a partner with the viceroy in the administration of the provinces. Instead of offering loyal support to the British raj, they demanded a statement of Britain’s postwar “goals and ideals” [69].
While the pressure on the British to leave India intensified, the rift between Hindus, led by Gandhi, Nehru and the Congress Party, and Muslims, led by Mohammed Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League, became deeper, and the ability for the two parties to eventually govern India, became untenable.
During World War II, in 1940 and again in 1942, Gandhi launched two Satyagraha campaigns against the British. The objectives of the campaigns were to force Britain out of India, and to allow the country to become fully independent. In August of 1942 Gandhi was again arrested, and months later tens of thousands of Indians filled the prisons. An Indian underground grew in response to the British crackdown and disrupted rail transport and engaged in other efforts to subvert the war [70].
Two years after the end of World War II, Britain’s Parliament passed in July 1947 the Indian Independence Act. It ordered that the dominions of India and Pakistan be demarcated by midnight of August 14–15, 1947. Two commissions worked to determine the boundaries demarcating areas for Muslims in the Punjab and in Bengal. When the borders were made public 15 million Muslim, Hindus and Sikhs fled their homes to relocate on the side of the borders on which they would be most safe. A ‘massacre’ ensued as many as a million people were killed [71].
On August 15th, 1947 the newly demarcated nations of India and Pakistan received independence from Britain.
On the evening of January 30th 1948, in New Delhi, Gandhi was on his way to prayer meeting. He encountered Nathuram Godse, a young Hindu fanatic, who pulled out a 9 mm Beretta semiautomatic pistol, and shot him three times in the chest at point blank range.
Final Thoughts
Throughout his writings, Gandhi makes it clear that Satyagraha is not just a political act, it is first and foremost an act of faith. He refers to it as a ‘soul-force’. At its core his faith is based on his perception of truth, love, purity, non-violence, and sacrifice. And ‘truth’ seems to be synonymous with all that was right: purity, justice, love.. The resistance movements, the non-cooperation, the marches, were all an outgrowth of what he saw as achieving truth for himself and his fellow countrymen. With injustice, harm to others, being stripped of one’s dignity, truth was defiled and had to be corrected. The method by which he sought to correct those wrongs however, was all the more extraordinary: it was achieved first and foremost through personal sacrifice, through personal suffering, rather than employing violence to destroy the opponent. In his book, Hind Swaraj, Gandhi writes: ‘Passive Resistance is a method of securing rights by personal suffering: it is the reverse of resistance by arms [72].
On more than one occasion he willingly disobeyed laws he believed were unjust, and ‘gladly’ suffered the consequences. He was deeply grieved when those in his own party misunderstood, misinterpreted, or simply ignored the spiritual tenets of Satyagraha. He did not hesitate to subject himself to personal suffering, through fasting for instance, to appeal to their inner sense of right and wrong and to change their actions.
Correcting wrongs was not just achieved by protest. Self-reliance was an integral part of the philosophy. Living on a self-sustaining farm, making sandals, spinning cotton to make one’s own clothing were all integral to the movement.
Resistance through violence has, and I suppose, always will be part of who we are as a people. Mohandas Gandhi has shown however that lasting change can also be achieved by doing the exact opposite.
© Weldon Turner, 2016. All Rights Reserved.
Next month: Dylan and the Gospel Songs.
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[72] M. K. Gandhi, Hind Swaraj, edited by Anthony J. Parel, Cambridge University Press, 2015, p89.
Bibliography
- K. Gandhi, Satyagraha in South Africa (Jitendra T. Desai Navajivan Publishing House), 1968.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Truth, (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform), 2013
Mahatma Gandhi, The Essential Gandhi, Edited by Louis Fischer, Vintage Books, 1983
- K. Gandhi, Hind Swaraj, edited by Anthony J Parel, Cambridge University Press, 2015